Unit 2: Theories of Language and Power - (Language Society & Power) M. Ed. Second Semester

 

2.1 Language as symbolic power: Pierre Bourdieu 

Pierre Bourdieu was a French sociologist who believed that language plays a crucial role in the distribution of power within society. He argued that language is a form of symbolic power, which can be used to create and reinforce social hierarchies. According to Bourdieu, those who have mastery of a dominant language or dialect have an advantage in society, as they are able to communicate more effectively and are more likely to be accepted in positions of power. This can lead to a situation where certain groups are marginalized and excluded from important social and economic opportunities.

Bourdieu's theory of language as symbolic power suggests that language is not just a means of communication, but also a tool for creating and maintaining social distinctions and hierarchies. He believed that the ability to speak and understand a dominant language or dialect is a form of cultural capital, which gives speakers an advantage in society. This is because those who can speak the dominant language are more likely to be successful in education, business, and politics, and are therefore more likely to hold positions of power.

Bourdieu also argued that the use of language can be a way of reproducing social inequality, as it can be used to exclude or marginalize certain groups. For example, those who speak a non-dominant language or dialect may be at a disadvantage in society, as they may have difficulty communicating with those in power and may be viewed as less educated or less capable.

In addition, Bourdieu pointed out that the use of language can also be a form of resistance against dominant power. He theorized that by using language in a different way, people can create their own cultural space and assert their own identity.

In summary, Pierre Bourdieu saw language as a powerful tool that can be used to create and reinforce social distinctions, and can be both a tool of oppression and a tool of resistance.

• Pierre Bourdieu believed that language plays a crucial role in the distribution of power within society.
• He argued that language is a form of symbolic power, which can be used to create and reinforce social hierarchies.
• According to Bourdieu, those who have mastery of a dominant language or dialect have an advantage in society, as they are able to communicate more effectively and are more likely to be accepted in positions of power.
• This can lead to a situation where certain groups are marginalized and excluded from important social and economic opportunities.
• The ability to speak and understand a dominant language or dialect is a form of cultural capital, which gives speakers an advantage in society.
• The use of language can be a way of reproducing social inequality, as it can be used to exclude or marginalize certain groups.
• The use of language can also be a form of resistance against dominant power.

 

 

2.1.1 Habitus and language 

Habitus is a concept developed by Pierre Bourdieu that refers to the way in which an individual's social background and experiences shape their habits, tastes, and dispositions. In relation to language, habitus plays an important role in shaping an individual's linguistic practices and abilities.

Bourdieu argued that an individual's habitus is formed through their experiences within a particular social class or field, and that this habitus shapes their language use and proficiency. For example, an individual from a lower social class may not have the same opportunities to acquire a high level of proficiency in a dominant language as someone from a higher social class. This can lead to a situation where certain groups are marginalized and excluded from important social and economic opportunities because of their language proficiency.

In addition, an individual's habitus can shape their ability to use and understand different languages and dialects. For example, an individual from a multilingual background may have a greater ability to use and understand different languages, while someone from a monolingual background may have more difficulty in doing so.

In summary, habitus is a concept developed by Pierre Bourdieu that refers to the way in which an individual's social background and experiences shape their habits, tastes, and dispositions, including their linguistic abilities and practices.

 

2.1.2 Language and capital: economic capital, cultural capital, and social capital 

In his theory of language as symbolic power, Pierre Bourdieu argues that language is closely linked to different forms of capital, including economic capital, cultural capital, and social capital.

Economic capital refers to the tangible assets and resources an individual has at their disposal, such as money, property, and investments. In relation to language, economic capital can influence an individual's ability to acquire language proficiency, for example, through expensive language classes or travel abroad.

Cultural capital refers to the educational, intellectual, and aesthetic resources an individual has at their disposal, such as knowledge, skills, and tastes. In relation to language, cultural capital can shape an individual's ability to speak and understand a dominant language or dialect, which can give them an advantage in education and the job market.

Social capital refers to the networks of relationships and connections an individual has within a community or society. In relation to language, social capital can influence an individual's ability to speak and understand a dominant language or dialect, as they may have access to people and resources that can help them acquire proficiency.

In summary, Pierre Bourdieu argues that language is closely linked to different forms of capital, including economic capital, cultural capital, and social capital. These forms of capital can influence an individual's ability to acquire language proficiency and shape their linguistic habits and practices.

 

• Pierre Bourdieu argues that language is closely linked to different forms of capital.
• Economic capital refers to the tangible assets and resources an individual has at their disposal, such as money, property, and investments.
• In relation to language, economic capital can influence an individual's ability to acquire language proficiency, for example, through expensive language classes or travel abroad.
• Cultural capital refers to the educational, intellectual, and aesthetic resources an individual has at their disposal, such as knowledge, skills, and tastes.
• In relation to language, cultural capital can shape an individual's ability to speak and understand a dominant language or dialect, which can give them an advantage in education and the job market.
• Social capital refers to the networks of relationships and connections an individual has within a community or society.
• In relation to language, social capital can influence an individual's ability to speak and understand a dominant language or dialect, as they may have access to people and resources that can help them acquire proficiency.

 

 

2.1.3 Legitimate language and the politics of official language 

The concept of "legitimate language" refers to the idea that certain languages or dialects are considered more acceptable or standard, while others are viewed as less acceptable or non-standard. This concept is closely linked to the politics of official language, which refers to the ways in which language is used to exert power and control within a society.

In many societies, a particular language or dialect is designated as the official language, and this is often used as a means of exclusion and marginalization of those who do not speak it. For example, in a country where the official language is not the language spoken by a significant portion of the population, speakers of that language may be at a disadvantage when it comes to accessing education, employment, and other opportunities.

Additionally, the politics of official language can also be used to assert control over different groups within society. For example, in a colonial context, the imposition of an official language by the colonizing power can be used to assert control over the colonized population and suppress their own language and culture.

In summary, the concept of legitimate language and the politics of official language refer to the ways in which language is used to exert power and control within a society. The designation of a particular language or dialect as official can be used as a means of exclusion and marginalization of those who do not speak it and to assert control over different groups within society.

• The concept of "legitimate language" refers to the idea that certain languages or dialects are considered more acceptable or standard, while others are viewed as less acceptable or non-standard.
• It is closely linked to the politics of official language, which refers to the ways in which language is used to exert power and control within a society.
• In many societies, a particular language or dialect is designated as the official language, and this is often used as a means of exclusion and marginalization of those who do not speak it.
• This can lead to disadvantage when it comes to accessing education, employment, and other opportunities for non-native speakers.
• The politics of official language can also be used to assert control over different groups within society, particularly in a colonial context.
• The imposition of an official language by the colonizing power can be used to assert control over the colonized population and suppress their own language and culture.

 

2.1.4 Censorship and euphemism 

Censorship refers to the suppression or prohibition of any parts of books, films, news, etc. that are considered obscene, politically unacceptable, or a threat to security. Euphemism, on the other hand, is the use of mild or indirect language to refer to something that might be considered harsh or offensive. Euphemisms are often used as a form of censorship, as they allow people to discuss sensitive topics without directly mentioning taboo words or phrases. For example, instead of saying "he died," one might say "he passed away."

 

2.2 Codes, class and cultural reproduction: Basil Bernstein 

Basil Bernstein was a British sociologist and education theorist who developed a theory of codes and class reproduction in relation to language and education. He argued that different social classes use language differently, and that these differences in language use can reproduce social class distinctions.

Bernstein proposed the concept of "elaborated" and "restricted" codes, which refers to the different ways that different social classes use language. Elaborated code refers to the use of complex, nuanced and abstract language, whereas restricted code refers to the use of concrete, specific, and literal language. He argued that working-class children are more likely to be exposed to restricted code in the home, while middle-class children are more likely to be exposed to elaborated code. This, he argued, can lead to a reproduction of social class distinctions in education, as working-class children may struggle to understand and engage with the elaborated code used in educational contexts, while middle-class children are more likely to excel.

Bernstein's work on codes and class reproduction has been widely discussed and debated in the field of sociology and education, and his ideas have been applied to research on language, education, and social class in many different cultures.

 

 

2.2.1 Codes, control and social class 

 

• Codes refer to the ways in which language is used to convey meaning and convey social relations
• Control refers to the ways in which language is used to exert power and influence over others
• Social class refers to the ways in which individuals or groups are stratified in society based on factors such as wealth, occupation, and education
• Bernstein argued that different social classes use language differently and that these differences in language use can reproduce social class distinctions
• The use of language can be used as a form of control to maintain social class distinctions by limiting access to education, occupation, and other opportunities for individuals from lower social classes
• Researchers have also argued that linguistic codes and practices can be used to reinforce social class distinctions through the use of accent, grammar, vocabulary, and other language features.
• It has been argued that the education system and other institutions reinforce these distinctions by valuing and rewarding certain forms of language use, and this can lead to a perpetuation of social class inequalities.

 

General codes and specific codes 

Basil Bernstein proposed the concept of general codes and specific codes as a way of understanding the relationship between language, social class, and control.

General codes refer to the abstract language and concepts that are used in formal or professional contexts, such as in education or the workplace. They are characterized by complex vocabulary, nuanced meanings, and abstract ideas. General codes are typically associated with middle-class individuals and are more likely to be used in formal and professional settings.

 

Specific codes, on the other hand, refer to the concrete, specific language and concepts that are used in everyday or informal contexts, such as in the home or among friends. They are characterized by simple vocabulary, concrete meanings, and specific ideas. Specific codes are typically associated with working-class individuals and are more likely to be used in informal and everyday settings.

Bernstein argued that the use and proficiency of general codes gives individuals more power and control over communication in formal and professional contexts, which can lead to greater opportunities and success. The use and proficiency of specific codes, on the other hand, is often seen as less valuable in formal and professional contexts, which can limit opportunities and reinforce social class distinctions.

 

Distribution of power and control 

In Basil Bernstein's theory of codes, power and control are closely tied to the use of general and specific codes. He argues that the distribution of power and control is related to the use and proficiency of different types of language and that it is not evenly distributed among different social classes.

Individuals who have access to and proficiency in general codes, which are more complex, nuanced, and abstract, have more power and control over communication in formal and professional settings. They can use this language to influence and persuade others, and are more likely to succeed in education and the workforce.

On the other hand, individuals who have less access to and proficiency in general codes and primarily use specific codes, which are more concrete, specific, and literal, have less power and control over communication in formal and professional settings. They may struggle to understand and engage with the language used in these contexts, which can limit their opportunities and reinforce social class distinctions.

Therefore, the theory suggests that the distribution of power and control is not equal among different social classes, and that those who have access to and proficiency in general codes have a greater degree of power and control over communication.

 

 

 

2.2.1 Elaborated and restricted codes 

 

Basil Bernstein proposed the concept of "elaborated" and "restricted" codes as a way of understanding the relationship between language, social class, and control.

Elaborated codes refer to the more complex, nuanced, and abstract language and concepts that are used in formal or professional contexts, such as in education or the workplace. They involve a wide range of vocabulary and grammar, and the ability to express abstract ideas and concepts. Elaborated codes are typically associated with middle-class individuals and are more likely to be used in formal and professional settings.

Restricted codes, on the other hand, refer to the more concrete, specific, and literal language and concepts that are used in everyday or informal contexts, such as in the home or among friends. They involve a more limited range of vocabulary and grammar, and the ability to express specific ideas and concepts. Restricted codes are typically associated with working-class individuals and are more likely to be used in informal and everyday settings.

Bernstein argued that the use and proficiency of elaborated codes gives individuals more power and control over communication in formal and professional contexts, which can lead to greater opportunities and success. The use and proficiency of restricted codes, on the other hand, is often seen as less valuable in formal and professional contexts, which can limit opportunities and reinforce social class distinctions.

 

Orientations, locations, distribution and performance 

 

In Basil Bernstein's theory of codes, he proposed several key concepts that relate to language, social class, and control.

 

·        Orientations refer to the ways in which individuals approach language and communication, and are closely tied to social class. Individuals from middle-class backgrounds tend to have a more "elaborated" orientation, characterized by a desire for abstract, nuanced language and a focus on the expression of ideas. In contrast, individuals from working-class backgrounds tend to have a more "restricted" orientation, characterized by a preference for concrete, specific language and a focus on the transmission of information.

·        Locations refer to the different contexts in which language is used. Bernstein argues that different social classes tend to use different types of language in different locations, with middle-class individuals using more "elaborated" code in formal settings and working-class individuals using more "restricted" code in informal settings.

·        Distribution refers to the ways in which language and communication skills are distributed across different social classes. Bernstein argues that access to and proficiency in "elaborated" code is not evenly distributed, with middle-class individuals having more access and proficiency than working-class individuals.

·        Performance refers to the ways in which individuals use language to achieve specific goals or outcomes. Bernstein argues that proficiency in "elaborated" code can give individuals more power and control over communication in formal settings, which can lead to greater opportunities and success in education and the workforce.

 

Overall, Bernstein's theory suggests that the ways in which individuals approach language, the contexts in which they use it, the distribution of language skills across different social classes, and the ways in which language is used to achieve specific goals or outcomes are all closely tied to social class and can have a significant impact on individuals' opportunities and success.

 

2.3 Language and hegemony: Antonio Gramsci 

Antonio Gramsci was an Italian Marxist philosopher and political theorist who developed the concept of cultural hegemony to explain the ways in which dominant groups maintain and reproduce their power through culture, including language.

Gramsci's theory of hegemony emphasizes the importance of consent and the active participation of subordinate groups in maintaining the dominant power structure. He argues that the ruling class uses various cultural institutions, such as education, media, and religion, to create a "dominant ideology" that is accepted and internalized by subordinate groups. This dominant ideology is reinforced through language, which serves as a tool for creating meaning and shaping social reality.

In this view, language is not neutral, but rather it is used as a tool of domination, where the dominant class uses its language to impose its own meanings, values, and beliefs on subordinate groups. This can lead to the marginalization and oppression of other languages, dialects, and linguistic practices, which can have a profound impact on individuals and communities.

Gramsci's theory of hegemony is closely tied to the concept of linguistic imperialism, which refers to the ways in which dominant languages and cultures are imposed on subordinate groups through various means, such as education, media, and economic power. It suggests that language can be a powerful tool for maintaining and reproducing social and political power, and that understanding the relationship between language and hegemony is crucial for understanding social and political dynamics.

 

• Antonio Gramsci was an Italian Marxist philosopher and political theorist
• Developed the concept of cultural hegemony to explain how dominant groups maintain and reproduce their power through culture, including language
• Hegemony emphasizes the importance of consent and active participation of subordinate groups in maintaining dominant power structure
• Ruling class uses cultural institutions such as education, media, and religion to create a "dominant ideology" that is internalized by subordinate groups
• Language is not neutral, but a tool of domination, where the dominant class imposes its own meanings, values and beliefs on subordinate groups
• Leads to marginalization and oppression of other languages, dialects and linguistic practices
• Closely tied to the concept of linguistic imperialism, which refers to the ways in which dominant languages and cultures are imposed on subordinate groups.
• Understanding the relationship between language and hegemony is crucial for understanding social and political dynamics.

 

Hegemony and language politics 

Hegemony and language politics are closely related concepts that refer to the ways in which language is used to maintain and reproduce social and political power.

In the context of hegemony, language is seen as a tool of domination, where the dominant class uses its own language to impose its own meanings, values, and beliefs on subordinate groups. This can lead to the marginalization and oppression of other languages, dialects, and linguistic practices.

Language politics refers to the ways in which language is used as a political tool to create, maintain, and challenge power relations. It encompasses issues such as language rights, language policy, language planning, language standardization, and language revitalization.

For example, language politics can involve the promotion of a dominant language as the official language of a country, and the suppression of minority languages. It can also involve the recognition of linguistic diversity and the promotion of multilingualism as a way to respect and value minority languages and cultures.

In both hegemony and language politics, language is not seen as neutral but as a powerful tool for creating, maintaining, and challenging social and political power relations. Understanding the relationship between hegemony and language politics is crucial for understanding the dynamics of power and oppression, and for promoting linguistic and cultural diversity.

Language, philosophy and intellectuals 

Language, philosophy, and intellectuals are interconnected concepts that have played a central role in shaping human thought and understanding throughout history.

Language is a tool for communication and understanding, and it is the foundation of human thought and culture. Philosophy is the study of the nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and it is closely tied to language, as it relies on language to express and explore ideas.

Intellectuals are individuals who are well-educated and have the ability to think critically and independently, and they often use language and philosophy to explore and understand the world around them. They can play a vital role in shaping public opinion and influencing political and social change through their ideas and writings.

Throughout history, philosophers and intellectuals have used language to explore and understand the world, and to express their ideas and thoughts. They have played a key role in shaping human thought and understanding, and their work continues to shape the way we think and understand the world today.

In addition, intellectuals are often considered as the voice of the society, they are the ones who can critically analyze the language and the discourse that is being used in the society, and they can make people aware of the power of language and how it can be used for manipulation and hegemony.

 

 

Language and nation

Language and nation are closely related concepts, as language is often seen as a key component of national identity and culture.

A nation is a group of people who share a common identity, culture, and history, and language is often seen as one of the key factors that define and unite a nation. A common language helps to create a sense of belonging and shared identity among the people of a nation, and it can serve as a means of communication and connection between different individuals and groups within a nation.

In many cases, the dominant language of a nation becomes synonymous with the nation itself. The promotion of the dominant language is often seen as a way of promoting national unity and identity. This can lead to the suppression of minority languages and dialects within a nation, which can have a negative impact on linguistic and cultural diversity.

On the other hand, the recognition and promotion of linguistic diversity within a nation can help to create a more inclusive and equitable society. It can also help to preserve and celebrate the cultural heritage and traditions of different groups within a nation.

In summary, language is often seen as a key component of national identity and culture, and it can play a significant role in shaping the dynamics of power and oppression within a nation. The promotion and recognition of linguistic diversity can help to create a more inclusive and equitable society.

 

Grammars of hegemony 

The concept of "grammars of hegemony" refers to the ways in which language is used to maintain and reproduce social and political power. It builds on the ideas of Antonio Gramsci's theory of cultural hegemony, which emphasizes the importance of consent and active participation of subordinate groups in maintaining the dominant power structure.

Grammars of hegemony refers to the specific linguistic practices and strategies that are used by the ruling class to maintain and reproduce their power. These practices can include the manipulation of language to create a dominant ideology, the suppression of alternative linguistic practices, and the use of language to marginalize and silence certain groups.

For example, the ruling class might use language to create a sense of common identity and shared culture among the dominant group, while at the same time using language to stigmatize and marginalize minority languages and dialects. This can lead to a situation where the dominant language becomes synonymous with the nation and the nation's identity, and minority languages are seen as inferior and unimportant.

In addition, the ruling class might use language as a tool of manipulation and control, by controlling the media and educational system, to create a dominant narrative that serves the interest of the ruling class.

 

Understanding the ways in which language is used as a tool of hegemony can help to shed light on the power dynamics within a society and can inform efforts to promote linguistic and cultural diversity.

 

2.4 Linguistic imperialism: Robert Phillipson 

Robert Phillipson is a Danish linguist and researcher who is known for his work on the concept of linguistic imperialism. This concept refers to the ways in which dominant languages and cultures are imposed on subordinate groups through various means such as education, media, and economic power.

Phillipson argues that linguistic imperialism is a form of cultural imperialism, where the dominant languages and cultures are imposed on subordinate groups and are seen as superior to other languages and cultures. This can lead to the marginalization and suppression of minority languages, dialects, and linguistic practices, which can have a profound impact on individuals and communities.

Phillipson argues that linguistic imperialism is not a new phenomenon but it has been present throughout history. He argues that linguistic imperialism is perpetuated by the dominant language countries and it is often reinforced by the education system, media, and the economic power.

Phillipson's work highlights the ways in which language can be used as a tool of domination and oppression and argues that linguistic imperialism is a key factor in understanding power dynamics within societies. His ideas have been influential in the field of linguistic anthropology and have been applied to research on language, education, and social class in many different cultures.

 

• Robert Phillipson is a Danish linguist and researcher known for his work on the concept of linguistic imperialism.
• Linguistic imperialism refers to the ways in which dominant languages and cultures are imposed on subordinate groups through education, media, and economic power.
• It leads to marginalization and suppression of minority languages, dialects, and linguistic practices.
• It is a form of cultural imperialism, where dominant languages and cultures are imposed and seen as superior to other languages and cultures.
• Phillipson argues that linguistic imperialism is not a new phenomenon but it has been present throughout history.
• It is perpetuated by the dominant language countries, reinforced by the education system, media and economic power.
• His ideas have been influential in the field of linguistic anthropology and applied to research on language, education, and social class in many cultures.

Linguistic imperialism and linguicism

Linguistic imperialism refers to the idea that certain languages, often those of dominant or colonizing cultures, are imposed on marginalized communities, resulting in the suppression of their own languages and cultures. This can happen through a variety of means, such as through education systems that prioritize the dominant language, media and cultural production that is primarily in the dominant language, and policies that require the use of the dominant language in government and other official contexts. This can lead to the erosion of linguistic and cultural diversity, and can have negative impacts on individuals and communities, including limiting access to education and employment opportunities, and perpetuating structural inequalities.

Linguicism is a term used to describe the ways in which language is used to discriminate against and marginalize certain groups of people, often based on factors such as race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. This can manifest in many ways, such as through language-based discrimination in the workplace, or through language requirements in education or government services that exclude certain groups of people. Linguicism can lead to a lack of access to opportunities, and can also contribute to the erosion of linguistic and cultural diversity.

Both linguistic imperialism and linguicism are forms of discrimination, and can have significant negative impacts on individuals and communities. It's important to recognize and address these issues in order to promote linguistic and cultural diversity and ensure that everyone has equal access to opportunities.

 

English language teaching (ELT) and linguistic imperialism  

English Language Teaching (ELT) is a field that focuses on teaching the English language to non-native speakers. However, ELT can also be seen as a form of linguistic imperialism because it often promotes the use of English as a global language and can contribute to the suppression of other languages and cultures. This can happen in various ways, such as through the use of English as the language of instruction in schools, or through the promotion of English as the language of business and international communication.

 

The use of English as a global language can have negative impacts on non-native speakers, including limiting access to education and employment opportunities if they are not proficient in English. It can also lead to the erosion of linguistic and cultural diversity, as people may feel pressure to abandon their own languages and cultures in order to succeed in a globalized world that values English. Furthermore, it can also lead to the dominance of the cultures associated with the language, leading to cultural homogenization.

It's important to recognize that ELT can be a form of linguistic imperialism and to take steps to address these issues. This can include valuing and promoting the use of multiple languages, and creating opportunities for people to maintain and develop their own languages and cultures. Additionally, ELT curricula and methodologies should be inclusive and culturally sensitive to avoid any form of cultural imposition.

 

History of ELT aids 

The history of ELT aids can be traced back to the early 20th century, when the first English language teaching manuals and grammars were developed. In the 1950s and 1960s, with the rise of audio-lingualism and the communicative approach, there was an increased focus on using technology in the classroom, such as audio tapes and language laboratories. This marked the beginning of the use of ELT aids as a tool for language instruction.

In the 1970s and 1980s, there was a growing interest in using computers in language instruction. This led to the development of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and the use of software programs and interactive multimedia materials as ELT aids.

In the 1990s and 2000s, the internet and the rise of digital technology greatly expanded the possibilities for ELT aids. Online resources, such as language learning websites, became increasingly popular, and mobile technology made it possible for people to access language learning materials on the go. Additionally, the advent of social media has also created new opportunities for language learners to connect with native speakers and engage in authentic language use.

Today, ELT aids are becoming more sophisticated and interactive, with the integration of Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality in language learning. These new technologies are providing new opportunities for language learners to engage with the language in more realistic and interactive ways, and to have a more personalized and effective language learning experience.

Overall, the history of ELT aids has been marked by a continuous evolution, with new technologies and pedagogical approaches being developed to improve language learning.

 

Tenets/fallacies of ELT

Tenets of ELT are the principles or assumptions that form the foundation of the field. The following are some of the main tenets of ELT:

1.    Language learning is a process that involves cognitive, social and affective aspects.

2.    Language learning is an active process in which learners construct their own knowledge.

3.    Language learning is context-dependent and involves the use of authentic materials and tasks.

4.    Language learning is influenced by the learner's individual characteristics, such as motivation, aptitude and prior knowledge.

5.    Language learning can be enhanced by providing learners with appropriate feedback and opportunities for self-reflection.

On the other hand, fallacies of ELT are misconceptions or false beliefs that are sometimes held about language learning and teaching. The following are some examples of fallacies of ELT:

1.    Language learning can be achieved through memorization and drills alone.

2.    The mother tongue should be avoided in the language classroom.

3.    The teacher should always be the source of knowledge and authority in the classroom.

4.    The most effective method of language teaching is the one that is currently popular or fashionable.

5.    Error-free production is the ultimate goal of language learning.

It's important to be aware of these tenets and fallacies of ELT in order to develop a more effective and evidence-based approach to language teaching and learning.